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L'enigma del Cenacolo. L'avventura di un…
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L'enigma del Cenacolo. L'avventura di un genio nel Rinascimento e dell'affresco che lo rese immortale (original: 2011; edição: 2012)

de Ross King (Autor)

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463653,117 (3.85)32
Tells the complete story of the creation of The Last Supper mural: the adversities suffered by the artist during its execution; the experimental techniques he employed; the models for Christ and the Apostles that he used; and the numerous personalities involved -- everyone from the Leonardo's young assistants to Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan who commissioned the work.… (mais)
Membro:stavma
Título:L'enigma del Cenacolo. L'avventura di un genio nel Rinascimento e dell'affresco che lo rese immortale
Autores:Ross King (Autor)
Informação:Rizzoli (2012)
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Leonardo and the Last Supper de Ross King (2011)

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There is never a dull moment in this story about late 1400s Italy - a hotbed of sodomy and syphilis as well as the birthplace of magnificent art and architecture - and the circumstances by which Leonardo da Vinci came to paint “The Last Supper.” This painting, avers King, which is arguably the most famous painting in the world, “is now 80 percent by the restorers and 20 percent by Leonardo.”

Leonardo was born in 1452 near Vinci, a hamlet sixty miles west of Florence. He was born out of wedlock, and so was not permitted by the laws at that time to go into the family business of being a notary. His illegitimacy also barred him from the legal profession or the university. His father could have arranged to have the situation fixed, but the author observes that “for unknown reasons he never legitimized him.”

However, the plus side was that Leonardo’s status freed him for more creative pursuits.

When he was 13 or 14 Leonardo began an apprenticeship in Florence with the goldsmith, painter, and sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio. This was about the time Verrocchio began working for the ruling Medici family. Leonardo stayed in Verrocchio’s workshop for at least six or seven years, “learning the trade secrets essential to a painter and sculptor.”

Leonardo went to Milan at age 30. Although he was astonishingly gifted at drawing and painting, his real loves were engineering and architecture. He had hopes, inter alia, of “inventing and constructing fearsome war machines such as chariots, cannons, and catapults.”

Alas, it was his art that earned him a living, and he began doing jobs for Lodovico Sforza, the ruler of Milan, mainly because Florence’s two greatest sculptors, Andrea del Verrocchio and Antonio del Pollaiuolo, were both busy on other projects. Lodovico was especially into staging spectacles, and he often used Leonardo to help with the costumes and sets for his extravaganzas.

King comments:

“By the age of 42 - in an era when life expectancy was only forty - Leonardo had produced only a few scattered paintings, a bizarre-looking music instrument, some ephemeral decorations for masques and festivals and many hundreds of pages of notes and drawings for studies he had not yet published, or for inventions he had not yet built. There was clearly a stark gulf between his ambitions and his accomplishments. Everyone who met him, or who saw his works, was dazzled by his obvious and undeniable brilliance. But too often his ambitions had been curtailed or frustrated.”

In his private notes, however, Leonardo recorded that he was just getting started, writing, “I wish to work miracles.” He finally got his chance, although not in the way he anticipated. In late 1494 or early 1495 he received a commission to paint the Last Supper on the wall of the refectory (the room used for communal meals) of Santa Maria Delle Grazie, a Dominican convent in Milan to which Lodovico had ties.

King tells us a lot about the Dominicans, who, along with the Franciscans, were the most active religious order in Italy. He also writes about other portrayals of the Last Supper in Florence, at least some of which Leonardo would have been familiar with. In particular, the Last Supper was a popular depiction in convent and monastery refectories.

King observes:

“A Last Supper was never an easy proposition, even on spacious refectory walls. The artist had somehow to fit around a table thirteen separate figures through whom he would illustrate either the moment when Christ instituted the Eucharist or announced, to general incomprehension, that one of the number would betray him.”

The painting was intended to be a fresco, but Leonardo did not have expertise in that technique, about which King provides details. He was, on the other hand, fascinated by the possibilities of working with oil paint, still not widely used at that time. For this commission he insisted on using oils, which he also mixed with tempera. By the summer of 1497 or at the latest the spring of 1498 Leonardo had finished The Last Supper:

“The result was 450 square feet of pigment and plaster, and a work of art utterly unlike anything ever seen before - and something unquestionably superior to the efforts of even the greatest masters of the previous century.”

Leonardo had four versions of the Last Supper to guide him - one from each of the four Gospels. The details of the supper differed slightly in each account. In particular, John’s version of the Last Supper makes no mention of the institution of the Eucharist.

Dominican art was often meant to reinforce doctrinal issues. One such issue in which the Dominicans, as the church’s spiritual enforcers, took an acute interest was transubstantiation. This doctrine was established in 1215 in the opening creed of the Fourth Lateran Council, which stated that the body and and blood of Christ “are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the forms of bread and wine . . .”

(Thus) Leonardo’s Last Supper was created . . . for a band of Dominican friars who ritually commemorated Christ’s sacrifice through the celebration of the Eucharist.

John’s Gospel, in addition to omitting the Eucharist, also differs in having John, called “the disciple whom Jesus loved most,” reclining on Christ’s bosom. On this point, Leonardo also did not follow the Gospel of John, but rather used the disciple John as part of another seminal aspect of the supper, when Christ announced one of the group would betray him.

Leonardo had spent his life trying to show emotions through drawings of facial expressions and hand gestures, and depicting people in the act of speaking or listening. It was one of his preoccupations, along with linear perspective and with finding the best chemical composition of colors and their juxtapositions in art. In a treatise he wrote on painting he claimed the artist had “two principal things to paint: that is, man and the intention of his mind. The first is easy; the second difficult, because it has to be represented by gestures and movements of the parts of the body.”

Part of the distinctiveness of The Last Supper is due to the perfection of these artistic techniques in his painting, revealing Leonardo’s “astounding powers of observation and unsurpassed understanding of light, movement, and anatomy.” King writes:

“Above all, it possessed more lifelike details...than anything ever created in two dimensions. An entirely new moment in the history of art had been inaugurated. . . . Art historians identify it as the beginning of the period they used to call the High Renaissance…. Leonardo had effected a quantum shift in art, a deluge that swept all before it.”

Alas, we only know of its greatness indirectly. The painting began disintegrating within twenty years of its completion. Over the years, the painting suffered from the paint’s defective adhesion to the wall; dampness, humidity, steam, smoke, soot from the convent, and the resulting mold; flooding, invasions, looting, and later even bombing in wartime. The refectory in which it was painted became a stable for Napoleon’s troops in 1796. The soldiers scratched out the apostles’ eyes and lobbed rocks at the painting. (Fortunately, the mural began some eight feet above the ground.)

By 1726 the work had become so dim and illegible that the friars began hiring restorers, some of whom were untalented frauds.

Fortunately Leonardo’s student Giampietrino (probably Giovanni Pietro Rizzoli) did a faithful copy in about 1520.

In 1977 the latest campaign for restoration began, taking a total of twenty-two years to complete before the unveiling in May 1999. Giampietrino’s work was used as a guide.

Aside from da Vinci’s work, King also includes many fascinating details about Leonardo’s personal life and about the social and political atmosphere in Europe in his time. For example, Leonardo, who was gay, had to pick up and leave town several times for “scandals,” even though homosexuality was common at the time. The author notes, interestingly, that “in the fifteenth century, Florentines were so well-known for homosexuality that the German word for sodomite was Florenzer.” The historical and religious context for the work is what gives this account so much piquancy and appeal.

Color plates are included.

Evaluation: I found this book to be so riveting I determined to move on to the author’s other works that combine stories of the origin and background of great art with riveting details of the times, such as the positively reviewed Michelangelo and the Pope’s Ceiling. ( )
  nbmars | Apr 17, 2023 |
Ross King ha escrit una sèrie de llibres narrant el procés de creació d’una obra d’art emblemàtica del Renaixement (ja sigui la cúpula de la basílica de Santa Maria del Fiore a Florència, les pintures de la volta de la Capella Sixtina a Roma o el mural del Sant Sopar al convent de Santa Maria delle Grazie de Milà) amb un relat biogràfic de l’autor (Brunelleschi, Miquel Àngel, Leonard da Vinci). Tot això passa a la Itàlia renaixentista, i els relats expliquen be el context de l’obra; qui l’encarrega (usualment personatges sinistres com el Papa Juli II o en aquest cas Ludovico Sforza, duc de Milà), els mètodes i la composició de l’equip de treball, els amics i els rivals, les guerres que capgiren el calendari d’execució de l’obra i sempre, la vida i la personalitat de l’artista principalment en el anys de la creació de l’obra tractada. L’obra escollida en aquest llibre és el Sant Sopar de Leonard da Vinci.

Leonardo da Vinci va néixer el 1452, fill il·legítim d’un important notari de Florència, i en la seva adolescència va aprendre l’ofici d’artista en el taller de Verrochio, el qual feia d' orfebre, ferrer, pintor, escultor i fonedor, permetent a Leonard aprendre una molt bona base; en pintura però, només va pintar a l’oli i al tremp d’ou sobre panells de fusta, no pas pintura al fresc. Si be va produir algunes obres mestres a Florència, el 1482 i amb 30 anys va marxar cap a Milà oferint-ser com a enginyer militar al duc de Milà. Però paradoxalment els encàrrecs que rebé foren principalment els de produir l’escenografia i vestits per desfilades militars, festes i celebracions en honor de Ludovico Sforza.

El 1494 Leonard da Vinci havia dedicat entre vuit i deu anys a modelar en argila i cera el motllo per fer l’escultura d’un gegantesc cavall (sobre el que posteriorment s’erigiria la figura del pare de Ludovico Sforza) segons la tècnica de modelatge per cera perduda, quan les setanta tones de coure necessàries per fer l’obra foren requisades pel propi patró de l’escultura (l’inefable Ludovico Sforza) per fabricar tres canons, que considerava necessaris per contenir l’agressiu avanç cap al Nord d’Itàlia de l’exercit del Regne de Nàpols. Leonard i el propi Ludovico es van quedar sense escultura, i la humanitat no sabrà mai quin tipus d’escultor hagués estat Leonard. Aquest cas té similituds amb l’aturada en l’inici de l’execució del mausoleu del Papa Juli II que el propi Juli II va imposar a Miquel Àngel per, a continuació, encarregar-li les pintures de la volta de la Capella Sixtina.

Entre els acompanyants de Leonard sempre apareix Salai, un jove ajudant, model, company i finalment pintor. El fet que sempre estigués en el cercle més proper a Leonard malgrat el seu comportament poca solta ha fet pensar que mantenia una relació íntima amb el pintor.

Leonard va adquirir la reputació de no acabar les seves obres, si be aquest fet no era el resultat d’una manca de competència sinó per l’alt nivell d’exigència que l’artista s’imposava i també pels seus múltiples interessos, fent tot plegat que s’allargués el temps necessari per executar els encàrrecs. Leonard va combinar l’execució del Sant Sopar amb diversos encàrrecs petits i grans, així com amb les seves investigacions sobre la factibilitat de construir ginys voladors, il·lustracions de figures matemàtiques del llibre Summa de Arithmetica de Luca Pacioli i altres activitats.

Malgrat aquesta fama Ludovico Sforsa va fer-li l’encàrrec de pintar el refectori del convent de Santa Maria delle Grazie, el qual inicià el 1495. Atesa la nul·la experiència de Leonard en pintura al fresc, va prendre l’arriscada decisió d’usar una nova tècnica, la tempera d’oli, que combinava el dos mètodes que ell coneixia be. Aquesta li permetia addicionalment evitar algunes limitacions importants de la pintura al fresc, com retocar la pintura tantes vegades com volia –molt propi de Leonard- i usar determinats colors (blau ultramarí, vermelló,..) que eren impracticables en la tècnica de la pintura al fresc.

El Sant Sopar és una pintura que incorpora bastantes innovacions. L’estil, tempera d’oli, els colors, molts elaborats pel mateix Leonard, l’ús dels colors complementaris i, per sobre de tot, l’ús de la perspectiva. Algunes figures d’apòstols tenen característiques força andrògines (Sant Joan, Felip) però aquesta característica estava ben assentada en els cànons culturals de l’època. Destaca també l’alt nivell de detall en tota l’obra. Acabat el 1498, és la pintura més famosa de Leonard –potser amb el permís de La Gioconda- i una de les obres que defineixen el Renaixement.

Lluis XII de França i Napoleó van voler extreure la pintura del seu lloc i portar-la a França. L’obra ha patit humitats, fums de cuina, vàries restauracions maldestres, inserció d’una porta, humitats, inundacions, bombardejos a la Segona Guerra Mundial, i l'espai del refectori s’ha usat com a estable i com a paller. Malgrat una última restauració ben feta de 22 anys de durada, alguns crítics diuen que el 80% de l'obra actual és restauració i el 20% restant és obra atribuible de Leonard. A partir de còpies fetes al principi del 1500 es pot deduir el que s’ha perdut. Ara la pintura és més un ideal que no pas una realitat tangible.

En el text del llibre hi ha una raresa que em sembla una mica fora de lloc. El llibre El codi Da Vinci de Dan Brown apareix com a crossa per comentar les diferents possibilitats d'assignar una figura a Sant Joan o Maria Magdalena. Es pot dir que aquest recurs apropa l’obra a l’experiència del lector no especialitzat, però aquest ús és una mica desconcertant sense aportar un valor afegit clar. Certament és original, però penso que no és bo pel llibre. I el fet que el llibre hagi fet augmentar el nombre de visitants a Santa Maria delle Grazie no és justificació.

El llibre inclou en 11 pàgines una bibliografia molt completa; com a curiositats, cal dir que inclou 8 llibres de Martin Kemp, un dels majors especialistes en Leonard; i també inclou un llibre escrit pel mateix Ross King.

I d’aquí a pocs anys el llibre, o de forma més general la interpretació del Sant Sopar o més generalista encara, l’enteniment de l’art europeu dels primers 1700 anys serà de difícil comprensió per a la majoria d’europeus que no coneixeran res d’història sagrada. Saber distingir entre profeta, apòstol, evangelista, beat, sant, Mare de Déu, advocació mariana, Déu Pare, Fill i Esperit Sant serà un coneixement que poca gent tindrà –independentment de les seves creences- i que dificultarà a l’observador ocasional saber i interpretar què és el que estarà veient. ( )
  JordiGavalda | Jul 10, 2019 |
Who knew there would enough material to write a book about one painting? I loved this book. It's been a month since I finished and I like to re-tell some of the stories in it, like about what happened to the clay model of Leonardo's giant horse statue he never got to finish. Or how Leonardo felt at times like never really had "arrived." Or that he really just wanted to make war machinery, but always got overlooked for engineering jobs. Young Leonard had trouble focusing and finishing things, and was squirrelly to his job commitments. How encouraging it would have been to learn these things about him when I was in my 20s. These are the kinds of things that need to be taught in art school. Now I just need to plan my visit to Italy to see the Last Supper.

( )
2 vote kerchie1 | Jun 9, 2017 |
Ross King's Leonardo and the Last Supper (Walker & Company, 2012) offers a good mix of biographical detail on da Vinci and his career, the historical context around the creation of his "Last Supper," and an analysis of the painting itself (from the possible models used to the food on the table to the way the painting fit into the room where it was created). King debunks a good few of the myths that have sprung up about the work (no, John is not Mary Magdalene, and no, the same model wasn't used for both Jesus and Judas), and uses a fair number of interesting digressions to explore other da Vinci works and aspects of both his life and the lives of those connected with the painting.

A bit more slow-going than some others of King's books, but still readable and interesting. ( )
2 vote JBD1 | Nov 24, 2012 |
Despite its iconic status, I knew very little about Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper before reading Ross King's book. I know a lot more about it now. This isn't a dry analysis of Leonardo's technique. It's an informative and entertaining look at Leonardo da Vinci's life, particularly the years spent in the court of the Duke of Milan. King puts the work into its historical context within Leonardo's career, the Renaissance art world, and the political climate in Milan in the late 15th century.

After reading about Leonardo's trail of unfinished projects leading up to The Last Supper, I think it's a wonder that he completed it. Since Leonardo didn't use the typical fresco technique, he had a wider range of colors available to him. Unfortunately, the painting began to show signs of deterioration even within Leonardo's lifetime. After centuries of well-meaning but disastrous preservation and restoration efforts and near-destruction from a World War II bombing, it's amazing that there's anything left to see. My bucket list now includes a trip to Milan to see what's left of the mural in person. I wish I could have done that about 500 years ago!

This review is based on an electronic advanced reading copy provided by the publisher through NetGalley. ( )
1 vote cbl_tn | Oct 28, 2012 |
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“The Last Supper” seemed to many to be a miraculous work of art because its revolutionary combination of realism, dramatic power and attention to detail was unlike anything that had come before. Leonardo had created a new standard for painterly excellence in the Renaissance. Yet Henry James called it “the saddest work of art in the world,” because it had for hundreds of years been on the verge of falling into invisibility. By casting light on the historical context of “The Last Supper,” King has enabled us to see the painting anew.
 
By the age of 42 (in an era in which life expectancy was 40), Leonardo da Vinci had yet to create anything commensurate with his lofty ambitions. At that point, Ross King writes in his new book, “Leonardo and ‘The Last Supper,’ ” he “had produced only a few scattered paintings, a bizarre-looking music instrument, some ephemeral decorations for masques and festivals and many hundreds of pages of notes and drawings for studies he had not yet published, or for inventions he had not yet built.” Too many of his projects — like creating a gigantic bronze horse on commission for Lodovico Sforza, the ruler of Milan — had gone unfinished; other projects having to do with architecture, military engineering and urban planning had not found patrons.....
adicionado por marq | editarNew York Times, MICHIKO KAKUTANI (Oct 29, 2012)
 
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Tells the complete story of the creation of The Last Supper mural: the adversities suffered by the artist during its execution; the experimental techniques he employed; the models for Christ and the Apostles that he used; and the numerous personalities involved -- everyone from the Leonardo's young assistants to Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan who commissioned the work.

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